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Author, psychiatrist. Born on July 8, 1926, in Zurich, Switzerland. Through her ground-breaking research and writings, Dr. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross helped revolutionize how the medical community cared for the terminally ill. She had a fragile start in life as a triplet, weighing only two pounds when she and her two other siblings were born. Developing an interest in medicine at a young age, Kübler-Ross encountered intense resistance from her father about her career aspirations. He told her that she could be a secretary in his business or go become a maid.

Defying her family, Kübler-Ross left home at the age of 16 and worked a series of jobs. She also served as a volunteer during World War II, helping out in hospitals and caring for refugees. After the war, Kübler-Ross volunteered to help in numerous war-torn communities. She was profoundly affected by a visit to the Maidanek concentration camp in Poland and the images of hundreds of butterflies carved into some of the walls there. To Kübler-Ross, the butterflies—these final works of art by those facing death—stayed with her for years and influenced her thinking about the end of life.

Kübler-Ross began pursuing her dreams to become a doctor in 1951 as a medical student at the University of Zurich. While there, she met Emanuel Robert Ross, an American medical student. They married in 1958, a year after she graduated, and moved to the United States where they both had internships at Community Hospital in Glen Cove, Long Island. Then she went on to specialize in psychiatry, becoming a resident at Manhattan State Hospital.

In 1962, Kübler-Ross and her husband moved to Denver, Colorado, to teach at the University of Colorado Medical School. She had been disturbed by the treatment of the dying throughout her time in the United States and found nothing in the medical school curriculum at the time that addressed death and dying. Filling in for a colleague one time, Kübler-Ross brought in a 16-year-old girl who was dying from leukemia into the classroom. She told the students to ask the girl any questions they wanted. But after receiving numerous questions about her condition, the girl erupted in anger and started asking the questions that mattered to her as a person, such as what was it like to not be able to dream about growing up or going to the prom, according to an article in The New York Times.

Moving to Chicago in 1965, Kübler-Ross became an instructor at the University of Chicago’s medical school. A small project about death with a group of theology students evolved into a series of well-attended seminars featuring candid interviews with people who were dying. Building upon her interviews and research, Kübler-Ross wrote On Death and Dying (1969), which identified the five stages that most terminally ill patients experience: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. The identification of these stages was a revolutionary concept at the time, but has since become widely accepted.

Köhler obtained his doctoral degree in biology (1974) from the University of Freiburg in West Germany. From 1974 to 1976 he worked with Milstein at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, England. Together, in 1975, they discovered the technique for which they are known.

In the body’s immune system, cells called lymphocytes secrete various types of antibodies, whose function is to attach themselves to antigens (foreign substances) that have entered the body. The immune system maintains a vast variety of antibodies, with each type able to attach itself to a matching site on the surface of a particular type of antigen (e.g., a particular species or strain of bacteria). To prepare substantial quantities of antibodies, scientists used to inject an antigen into an animal, wait for antibodies to form, draw blood from the animal, and isolate the antibodies. The antibodies obtained by this procedure were almost never pure, because typical antigens possess many recognizable surface sites, each of which leads to formation of a different type of antibody.

Köhler and Milstein saw that if a way could be found to clone lymphocytes—to cause them to subdivide indefinitely in a culture medium—then the antibody molecules secreted by the resulting population would all be identical. Lymphocytes are short-lived, however, and cannot be cultivated satisfactorily. Köhler and Milstein solved this problem by inducing lymphocytes to fuse with the cells of a myeloma (a type of tumour), which can be made to reproduce indefinitely. The resulting hybrid cells produced a single species of antibody while perpetuating themselves indefinitely.

The development of monoclonal antibodies revolutionized many diagnostic procedures and led to new therapeutic agents for fighting disease, since monoclonal antibodies can be designed to target specific types of cells or other antigens and can be used to carry drugs to those cells.

Köhler worked at the Basel Institute for Immunology from 1976 to 1985. In 1985 he was appointed one of three directors of the Max Planck Institute for Immunobiology in Freiburg.